ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT : Agriculture Entomology

S.Y.B.Sc. Zoology Sem II paper II

Agriculture entomology and pest pesticides

Syllabus 2.1 Introduction to Pests, Concept of Pest and Types of pests (agricultural, household, stored grains, structural, veterinary, forestry and nursery).

INTRODUCTION:

The influence of insects on human life ‘destructive and beneficial’ can he traced back to prehistoric day and till now. A constant struggle is going on between men and insects in the pursuit of food. This struggle will go on for ever because there does not seem to be final victory on either side. To know the destructive potentialities of some insects, one should visit a countryside invaded by locusts. Within a couple of hours of the invasion, not a blade of grass or green vegetable can be found in the area and certain scale insects can completely destroy an orchard crop. Man is himself often the victim of these insects attacks.

Agriculture is one of the important branch of Biology which deals with the cultivation of crop plants and domestication of useful animals. Invention in agriculture by the human being has brought a big revolution in the ecosystem of earth. Of all demands of man, food is of prime importance and because of population pressure the task of increase food production is on our nation’s priority. In the 1970’s the so-called ‘Green Revolution’ made remarkable contribution in increasing the per acre yield of land because of high yielding varieties of wheat, rice, maize; grains and cereals. In order to achieve our target of 250 million tonnes of food grains by 2005 A.D., insect pest control has become important cultivation of large number of same type of plants in vast areas provided readily available host to the pest and parasites which can also survive and attack the plants very easily.

A number of pathogens cause diseases in crop plants and domesticated animals. Such pathogens cause damage to them. This finally results in economic loss to the farmer.

In India, agriculture is the main occupation of the majority of people. The major cash crops are sugarcane, cotton, citrus, groundnut, tobacco, potato etc. Apart from these coffee, tea, cashewnut, mango, grapes, oranges, various kinds of vegetables and flowers etc. Besides this major crops are sorghum, wheat, rice, maize, millets and many legumes are also cultivated on large scale as they have increasing market value but the most important natural enemies of agricultural crops are insects, plant diseases, weeds and weather conditions. Out of this insects are most successful group of animals even in the adverse climatic conditions therefore, they are greatest competitors of man in the struggle for existence. The insects which cause damage to crop plants are called as Agricultural Pest. In the present topic we will study the various kinds of pest in broad sense/view.

(A) PEST - Derived from French ward ‘Peste’ and Latin term ‘Pestis’ meaning plague or contagious disease

- Pest is any animal which is noxious, destructive or troublesome to man or his interests

- A pest is any organism which occurs in large numbers and conflict with man’s welfare, convenience and profit

- A pest is an organism which harms man or his property significantly or is likely to do so (Woods, 1976)

- Insects are pests when they are sufficiently numerous to cause economic damage (Debacli, 1964)

- Pests are organisms which impose burdens on human population by causing

(i) Injury to crop plants, forests and ornamentals

(ii) Annoyance, injury and death to humans and domesticated animals

(iii) Destruction or value depreciation of stored products.

Pests include insects, nematodes, mites, snails, slugs, etc. and vertebrates like rats, birds, etc.

Depending upon the importance, pests may be agricultural forest, household, medical, aesthetic and veterinary pests.

(B) CONCEPT OF PEST

Pest can be defined as any organism (animal or plant) whose population increases to such an extent as to cause economic losses to crops or a nuisance and health hazard to man and his livestock or possessions will be declared as a pest. The attack of pest to the agricultural crops cause economic loss to farmer. According to Edwards and Heath (1964) the pest is said to be “Economic Pest” if any pest causes at least 5% or more loss to the crops. The amount of damage caused to a crop is called as “Economic damage”. The lowest pest population density which causes damage is called as “Economic Injury Level”. This varies from crop to crop, area to area and season to season. For calculating the Economic Injury Level (EIL) includes four parameters:

(i) Cost of control

(ii) The market value of the crop

(iii) The yield loss attributable to a unit number of insects.

(iv) The effectiveness of the control.

Stern et. al. (1959) called the density of pest population at which control measures should be started to prevent increase in pest population from reaching the economic injury level is called as ‘Economic Threshold’.

Insect pest are capable of feeding an almost all types of organic matter. The insects can cause damage to crop plants in the field, fruit plants, stored food and even the property. The pests can cause even health problems to man and his animals. Based on the host which they affect the pests are classified as following

1. Agricultural Crop Pests:

Sugarcane is an important cash crop cultivated widely in Maharashtra. This single crop is infested by sugarcane stem borer, shoot borer moth, root borer, pyrilla, mealy bug, scale insects etc. The cutworms, leafhoppers, potatotuber moth, epilachna beetles, mites, aphids and thrips cause injuries to potato crop and vegetables in field as well as in the storage. The cabbage leaf miner and cabbage caterpillars spoil the cabbage crop seriously. The Rhinoceros beetle, mango stem borer, brinjal fruit borer, ber fruit borer infesting the variety of fruits in the field as well as in the storage. The Tsrips, Aphids, flea beetles, etc. damage grapes, resulting to great economic loss; if not controlled properly. The chickoo moth and rhinoceros beetles causç damage to chickoo and to coconuts. Thus, large number of pest organisms cause serious damage to many agricultural crop plants if not controlled properly.

Agricultural Pests can have direct or indirect effect on agricultural plants/crops as following

(a) Direct effect

The direct effect of pests is mainly due to their feeding on the crop plants, through biting, piercing or sucking mouth parts to feed on the crop accordingly.

(i) Leaf eaters like adults and nymphs, larvae of zonocerus, caterpillar larvae reduce the leaf area and adversely affect the plant growth.

(ii) Stem borers and hoot flies make tunnels in the stem and disturb the conduction mechanism of the plant i.e. Antherigona in Maize, Disphya in coffee.

(iii) Some pests attack the buds at the growing points and prevent the branching and growth of the stem. i.e. Chilozonellus in Jowar and Earias in cotton.

(iv) In some plants, the pests causes the immature fruit fall i.e. Mango fruit fly, ridge fly.

(v) The pests attack the flowers and damage the crop e.g. Tassel beetle of Maize.;

(vii) Number of sucking insects suck cell sap from the crop plants in large quantities and results in loss of vigour of the plant. For example, Bemisia (white fly) on cotton, Aphids on many vegetable plants.

(viii) Some pest suck sap from flower and reduce the seed setting i.e. coffee Lygus bugs.

(ix) Premature nut fall is seen in coconut because of coconut hug and scales insects causes premature leaf fall.

(x) Some sucking insect inject toxins into the host body which results in distortion, gall formation, necrosis of leaves, etc. in the host e.g. Lygus bugs in cotton.

(xi) Dydercus sucks cell sap of cotton leading vitality of plants.

(b) Indirect Effects:

(i) Agricultural pests effects, delay the crop maturity and harvest. These pests not only cause loss of production but also cause decline of qualify, nutritional value, discolouration and market value.

(ii) The insects cause damage also act as transmission agents to transfer the pathogenic fungi, bacteria or viruses which leads secondary effects on the crop plants. For example, platygasteri wasp transmit coffee leaf rust, viral diseases like mosaic virus disease and curling leaf of cotton.

2. Household Pests:

The diverse environments around us are very attractive to insects, including lawns, flowers, shrubs, parks, industrial complexes and dwellings. Pests that infest dwellings are commonly referred to as household pests (insects). Household insects are direct concern to man, his possessions and his immediate environment.

Insects such as cockroaches, crickets, houseflies, fruit flies, weevils, ants (red and black), and silver fish, etc. which contaminate eatable food and spoil it or transmitting disease causing agents are commonly placed under this group. The insects like cloth moths, carpet beetle, furniture beetles cause damage to property (human-possessions) are also belongs to household pest. Thus, all types of insect which are unwanted guests in the dwellings of man, which cause damage to human holdings and his health are called as household pests.

3. Storage Grain Pests:

The storage of food grains has been a long practice with cultivators and traders. Considerable losses both in quality and quantity of food grains take place in storage due to number of factors. Organisms like insects, mites, rodents, fungi and bacteria are directly responsible for causing loss in stored products. It is estimated that about 74Q% stored grains are lost every year due to stored grain pest in India.

The stored food grains, seeds, fruits, nuts, etc. are infected by the internal borer insects in the Kothis, godowns and warehouses are most injurious of all insects. The borers can attack them, even during the harvesting stage in the farm land itself. The grain weevils (pulse beetle, rice weevils), moths. Red rust flour beetle, etc. cause a major damage to stored cereals (wheat, rice, bajara, barley, corn, oat, millets, etc.) and pulses (lentils, peas, beans, gram, etc.) respectively. Mainly the insects spoil the stored food grains and render them unfit for human;0] consumption, sowing purposes. The stored grain pest can be differentiated into two types viz.

(i) Primary type : This group of pests cause damage to intact grains i.e. uncrushed state.

(ii) Secondary type: This group of pests feed or attack the broken or crushed grains.

4. Structural Pests:

Structural pests are those harmful insects which cause damage to

wooden frames, doors, furnitures, fencing posts, library books, stored

papers, cardboards, and all other wooden articles and components of

buildings are referred as structural pests.

The termites (i.e. white ants) are colonial and social insects, feed on cellulose, mean while damage wooden material in variable form. Silver fishes food on starch material and ghee, thus damaging book bindings, wall papers, photographs and all kinds of adhesive labels. Cloth moths and carpet beetles can also be damage cloths, carpets as structural pests.

5. Veterinary pest : (Domestic Animal Pests)

The insects which cause damage to domestic animals like chicken, horses, cattle, etc. And blood sucking insets like fleas, lice, bugs, mosquitoes, stable flies as ectoparasite are the examples of domestic animal pests. A biting lice like Mallophage cause irritation and loss of flesh in poultry farms. Tabanid flies, horn flies suck the blood from cattle and horses. Both flies cause serious stomach disturbances in horses. Grubs of OX-warble flies cause loss of flesh in cattle and can cause damage to the leather by cutting holes in the skin.

6. Forestry pest: forestry and nursery: Insects of this group enter into the plant and cause deformations in the structure and function of different organs of the forest and nursery plants and trees i.e. stem borers enter stem / shoot causes tunneling inside and swelling. Leaf roller and leaf cutter cause sever deforestation. Gall insects cause swelling, bark feeder destroy surface of stem. E.g. Bark beetle destroy the timber in the forest, the termites damage the timber logs even after leaving the forest. The sap suckers such as plant bugs, aphids and Thrips suck plant juice of nursery plants which inhibit the photosynthetic activity.

(D) CATEGORIES OF PESTS

Based on occurrence following are pest categories

1. Regular pest: Frequently occurs on crop - Close association e.g. Rice slem borer, Brinjal fruit borer

2. Occasional pest: Infrequently occurs, no close association e.g. Caseworm on rice, Mango stem borer

3. Seasonal pest: Occurs during a particular season every year e.g. Red hairy caterpillar on groundnut, Mango hoppers

4. Persistent pests: Occurs on the crop throughout the year and is difficult to control

e.g. Chilli thrips, mealy bug on guava

5. Sporadic pests: Pest occurs in isolated localities during some period. e.g. Coconut slug caterpillar

By. Dr. Jawale C.S. S.Y.B.Sc. Zoology

Syllabus 2.1 Introduction to Pests, Concept of Pest and Types of pests (agricultural, household, stored grains, structural, veterinary, forestry and nursery).

INTRODUCTION:

A number of pathogens cause diseases in crop plants and domesticated animals. Such pathogens cause damage to them. This finally results in economic loss to the farmer.

(A) PEST - Derived from French ward ‘Peste’ and Latin term ‘Pestis’ meaning plague or contagious disease
- Pest is any animal which is noxious, destructive or troublesome to man or his interests
- A pest is any organism which occurs in large numbers and conflict with man’s welfare, convenience and profit
- A pest is an organism which harms man or his property significantly or is likely to do so (Woods, 1976)
- Insects are pests when they are sufficiently numerous to cause economic damage (Debacli, 1964)
- Pests are organisms which impose burdens on human population by causing
(i) Injury to crop plants, forests and ornamentals
(ii) Annoyance, injury and death to humans and domesticated animals
(iii) Destruction or value depreciation of stored products.
Pests include insects, nematodes, mites, snails, slugs, etc. and vertebrates like rats, birds, etc.
Depending upon the importance, pests may be agricultural forest, household, medical, aesthetic and veterinary pests.

(B) CONCEPT OF PEST

Pest can be defined as any organism (animal or plant) whose population increases to such an extent as to cause economic losses to crops or a nuisance and health hazard to man and his livestock or possessions will be declared as a pest. The attack of pest to the agricultural crops cause economic loss to farmer. According to Edwards and Heath (1964) the pest is said to be “Economic Pest” if any pest causes at least 5% or more loss to the crops. The amount of damage caused to a crop is called as “Economic damage”. The lowest pest population density which causes damage is called as “Economic Injury Level”. This varies from crop to crop, area to area and season to season. For calculating the Economic Injury Level (EIL) includes four parameters:

(i) Cost of control
(ii) The market value of the crop
(iii) The yield loss attributable to a unit number of insects.
(iv) The effectiveness of the control.

(C) TYPES OF PESTS
Insect pest are capable of feeding an almost all types of organic matter. The insects can cause damage to crop plants in the field, fruit plants, stored food and even the property. The pests can cause even health problems to man and his animals. Based on the host which they affect the pests are classified as following

1. Agricultural Crop Pests:

Each and every agricultural crops are infested by number of pests that cause severe damage. Pest constitute a large number of insects attacking the various crop plants. The immature stages or adults insects are either foliage feeders or saps suckers. These insects bears chewing and sucking type of mouth parts. They may he internal feeders or borers or sub-terranean inhabitants. The important crops like jowar, bajara, wheat, cotton, sugarcane, etc. are attacked by pests like stem borer, shoot fly, deccan wingless grasshopper, armyworms, flea beetles, aphids, leafhoppers mites, jowar midge fly, etc. The cabbage worms, semiloopers, potato beetles, etc., possess chewing type mouth parts. They chew and shallow the external parts of the plants. While some insects i.e. blister beetle feed on pollens, petals of bajara etc. thus causing severe damage.
Sugarcane is an important cash crop cultivated widely in Maharashtra. This single crop is infested by sugarcane stem borer, shoot borer moth, root borer, pyrilla, mealy bug, scale insects etc. The cutworms, leafhoppers, potatotuber moth, epilachna beetles, mites, aphids and thrips cause injuries to potato crop and vegetables in field as well as in the storage. The cabbage leaf miner and cabbage caterpillars spoil the cabbage crop seriously. The Rhinoceros beetle, mango stem borer, brinjal fruit borer, ber fruit borer infesting the variety of fruits in the field as well as in the storage. The Tsrips, Aphids, flea beetles, etc. damage grapes, resulting to great economic loss; if not controlled properly. The chickoo moth and rhinoceros beetles causç damage to chickoo and to coconuts. Thus, large number of pest organisms cause serious damage to many agricultural crop plants if not controlled properly.

Agricultural Pests can have direct or indirect effect on agricultural plants/crops as following

(a) Direct effect

The direct effect of pests is mainly due to their feeding on the crop plants, through biting, piercing or sucking mouth parts to feed on the crop accordingly.

(i) Leaf eaters like adults and nymphs, larvae of zonocerus, caterpillar larvae reduce the leaf area and adversely affect the plant growth.
(ii) Stem borers and hoot flies make tunnels in the stem and disturb the conduction mechanism of the plant i.e. Antherigona in Maize, Disphya in coffee.
(iii) Some pests attack the buds at the growing points and prevent the branching and growth of the stem. i.e. Chilozonellus in Jowar and Earias in cotton.
(iv) In some plants, the pests causes the immature fruit fall i.e. Mango fruit fly, ridge fly.
(v) The pests attack the flowers and damage the crop e.g. Tassel beetle of Maize.;

(vi) In some plants like maize, black maize beetle, destroy the absorbing tissue of root leading inhibit growth. Some insects consume stored food, underground tubers, etc. affect growth i.e. potato beetle.
(vii) Number of sucking insects suck cell sap from the crop plants in large quantities and results in loss of vigour of the plant. For example, Bemisia (white fly) on cotton, Aphids on many vegetable plants.
(viii) Some pest suck sap from flower and reduce the seed setting i.e. coffee Lygus bugs.
(ix) Premature nut fall is seen in coconut because of coconut hug and scales insects causes premature leaf fall.
(x) Some sucking insect inject toxins into the host body which results in distortion, gall formation, necrosis of leaves, etc. in the host e.g. Lygus bugs in cotton.
(xi) Dydercus sucks cell sap of cotton leading vitality of plants.

(b) Indirect Effects:

(i) Agricultural pests effects, delay the crop maturity and harvest. These pests not only cause loss of production but also cause decline of qualify, nutritional value, discolouration and market value.
(ii) The insects cause damage also act as transmission agents to transfer the pathogenic fungi, bacteria or viruses which leads secondary effects on the crop plants. For example, platygasteri wasp transmit coffee leaf rust, viral diseases like mosaic virus disease and curling leaf of cotton.

2. Household Pests:
The diverse environments around us are very attractive to insects, including lawns, flowers, shrubs, parks, industrial complexes and dwellings. Pests that infest dwellings are commonly referred to as household pests (insects). Household insects are direct concern to man, his possessions and his immediate environment.
Insects such as cockroaches, crickets, houseflies, fruit flies, weevils, ants (red and black), and silver fish, etc. which contaminate eatable food and spoil it or transmitting disease causing agents are commonly placed under this group. The insects like cloth moths, carpet beetle, furniture beetles cause damage to property (human-possessions) are also belongs to household pest. Thus, all types of insect which are unwanted guests in the dwellings of man, which cause damage to human holdings and his health are called as household pests.

3. Storage Grain Pests:
The storage of food grains has been a long practice with cultivators and traders. Considerable losses both in quality and quantity of food grains take place in storage due to number of factors. Organisms like insects, mites, rodents, fungi and bacteria are directly responsible for causing loss in stored products. It is estimated that about 74Q% stored grains are lost every year due to stored grain pest in India.
The stored food grains, seeds, fruits, nuts, etc. are infected by the internal borer insects in the Kothis, godowns and warehouses are most injurious of all insects. The borers can attack them, even during the harvesting stage in the farm land itself. The grain weevils (pulse beetle, rice weevils), moths. Red rust flour beetle, etc. cause a major damage to stored cereals (wheat, rice, bajara, barley, corn, oat, millets, etc.) and pulses (lentils, peas, beans, gram, etc.) respectively. Mainly the insects spoil the stored food grains and render them unfit for human;0] consumption, sowing purposes. The stored grain pest can be differentiated into two types viz.
(i) Primary type : This group of pests cause damage to intact grains i.e. uncrushed state.
(ii) Secondary type: This group of pests feed or attack the broken or crushed grains.

4. Structural Pests:
Structural pests are those harmful insects which cause damage to
wooden frames, doors, furnitures, fencing posts, library books, stored
papers, cardboards, and all other wooden articles and components of
buildings are referred as structural pests.
The termites (i.e. white ants) are colonial and social insects, feed on cellulose, mean while damage wooden material in variable form. Silver fishes food on starch material and ghee, thus damaging book bindings, wall papers, photographs and all kinds of adhesive labels. Cloth moths and carpet beetles can also be damage cloths, carpets as structural pests.

5. Veterinary pest : (Domestic Animal Pests)
The insects which cause damage to domestic animals like chicken, horses, cattle, etc. And blood sucking insets like fleas, lice, bugs, mosquitoes, stable flies as ectoparasite are the examples of domestic animal pests. A biting lice like Mallophage cause irritation and loss of flesh in poultry farms. Tabanid flies, horn flies suck the blood from cattle and horses. Both flies cause serious stomach disturbances in horses. Grubs of OX-warble flies cause loss of flesh in cattle and can cause damage to the leather by cutting holes in the skin.

6. Forestry pest: forestry and nursery: Insects of this group enter into the plant and cause deformations in the structure and function of different organs of the forest and nursery plants and trees i.e. stem borers enter stem / shoot causes tunneling inside and swelling. Leaf roller and leaf cutter cause sever deforestation. Gall insects cause swelling, bark feeder destroy surface of stem. E.g. Bark beetle destroy the timber in the forest, the termites damage the timber logs even after leaving the forest. The sap suckers such as plant bugs, aphids and Thrips suck plant juice of nursery plants which inhibit the photosynthetic activity.

RED COTTON BUG:

3. RED COTTON BUG
Class - Insecta
Order — HemipteraFamily—Pyrrhocoridae
Genus - Dysdercus
Species – cingulatus / koenigii (Feb)
The red cotton bug has wide distribution, it is a minor pest in cotton growing region of northern India particularly Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. This pest also occurs throughout the Maharashtra state but is minor importance. It is commonly known as a “cotton stainer”.
Host Plants : Cotton, bhendi, ambadi, hollyhock and several other malvaceous plants.

Fig:Dysdercus male & female

Identification Marks:
The adult bug measures about 12-15 mm in length. The females are Longer (15 mm) than the males (12 mm). It is blood red in colour except eyes, scutellum, anal style, and antennae which are black coloured. Besides, there is a black spot on each of the membranous forewings. A series of white transverse bands are present on the ventral side of the abdomen. Mouthparts are adapted for piercing and sucking. They form a straight beak or rostrum. The nymphs are smaller than adults and are wingless.

Fig: Dysdercus nymph (larval form)
Life Cycle :
The mature female lays eggs during spring in clusters of 70-80 eggs each under the moist soil surface; fallen leaves and in crevices. The eggs are spherical, yellowish-white about 1.2 mm in length. After 7 days of incubation period and moist weather, eggs are hatched into active 1 mm long red coloured nymphs which are resemble the adult except size and absence of wings. The nymphs feed gregariously on the cotton bolls. The nymphs undergo 5-moults within 49-89-days to reach adult stage. In winter the life of the adult is about 3-months but in summer it is varied. Pest breeds on cotton from August- November; takes shelter under leaves or debris from December-middle of March and feeds on bhendi from April-July. The life cycle of bug is completed within six to eight weeks.

Fig: Dysdercus (identification marks)
Nature of Damage:
Both nymphs and adults suck the cell sap from the leaves and tender shoots and impair the vitality of the plant. If the attack is severe, bolls open badly and the lint is of poor quality. In addition they also feed on the seeds and lower their oil content and low percentage of germination; such seeds are unfit for sowing. The lint is stained by the excreta of bugs or by their body juice as they are crushed in the ginning factories, so named cotton stainer.

Control Measures:
1. Cotton field should be ploughed to expose eggs to sunlight.
2. Insects should be hand picked and killed in kerosene water.
3. The crops of bhendi should be sown as trap crop and pests collected there, should be destroyed.
4. Moistened cotton seeds should be hanged up at different places in the field where bugs congregate, they may get killed in the kerosene water.
5. Spraying of Malathion O.O5% is effective to control the pest.
6. Spraying of 1 litre endosulfan 35% EC, 0.25 litre phosphamidon = 100% EC or 1 litre Fenitrothion 100% EC per hectare is very effective or reduce pest population.

2 JOWAR STEM BORER
Class — InsectaOrder - LepidopteraFamily - Pyralidae
Genus - Chilo
Species — zonellus = partellus (Swinhoe)Jowar is the most important stable food crop of the Maharashtra state. Besides being
stable food crop of the people, it also supplies very good fodder for the cattle. It iscultivated in Kharif, Rabi and also in hot weather. Jowar stem borer is one of the major
pests of jowar. This pest is generally observed in the early growth of the crop and even
after the earhead formation. This pest is active throughout the year but the infestation is
more noticed on rabi and hot weather crops. The hybrid varieties are more susceptible to
this pest.
Distribution: It occurs throughout India. The jowar stem borer is commonly called as spotted stalk borer or pink borer.Identification MarksThe adult moth is a medium sized insect with 3 cm wing span. Its forewings are straw or light brown in colour with numerous shining brown spots on the margin and hind wingsare white and papery. The caterpillars (Larvae) are dirty white in colour with dark brown
head with mandibulate type of mouthparts. Many dark spots are appeared on the body.
Mature caterpillars are measured about 12-20 mm in length and shows four broad and
patchy strips on the body.
Fig. : Jowar Stem Borer

Fig: dead heart
Host Plants: This is the major pest of jowar and maize but also recorded on bajra, ragi
and other grasses.

Fig: Host plant (Jowar / Sorghum)
Life Cycle: A female lays about 50-300 eggs in clusters arranged in two rows on the
under surface of the leaves during April-May. Eggs are creamy white in colour They
hatch into the young caterpillar in about six days of incubation period. The young
caterpillar feeds on tender leaves for a day or two and bores into the central shoot. The
larval stage last for about 3-4 weeks and have normally five molts. Pupation takes place
inside the stem and it last for about 7-10 days. The adult lives for 2-4 days. The pest is
generally active from June to November and about four generations are completed in a
year. The pest hibernates in the larval stage in stubbles during unfavorable period.

Fig: Life cycle
Nature of Damage:
Newly hatched caterpillars initially feed on the leaves causing numerous small holes in
the leaf lamina and attack all parts of jowar plant except the roots. The larvae on entering
the leaf, whorl and cut the leaves, which on emergence manifest characteristic pin holes,
shoot holes and longitudinal streaks. At times the growing point is cut which results in
drying of the central shoot and subsequently formation of dead-heart. The larvae after
entering the stem, feed on the tissues (pith) and tunnels or galleries are formed.

Fig: symptoms of Damage
Control Measures:
Cultural Method:
1. Hand picking or light trapping of adult moths and collection of their eggs for
destruction.
2. Burning of stubbles and trash which harbour borers and act as source of
infestation for the next crop.
3. Changing the sowing and harvesting timing reduces infestation.
4. Crop rotation is another cultural practice that does not allow the pest of one crop
to survive next year for lack of its host.
5. Growing resistant varieties of jowar like CHS-7, CHS-8, Indian sorghum types
IS-5566, 5285 and 5613.
Chemical Method:
1. For the Chilo on jowar a spray of 0.05% lindane or 0.1% endosulfan on 15 days
old plants has been found effective. This may be followed after another fortnight
with a second application of 1.0% lindane or 4% endosulfan granules. A third
application with 0.2% carbaryl spray may be carried out, if found necessary.
2. If the crop infestation is noticed, dusting of crop in the early stage with 10% BHC
at the rate of 25 kg per hectare or spraying the crop with 350-400 ml of aldrin or
dieldrin in 200 litre of water helps to control the pest.
Biological Method:
1. The hymenopteran, Trichogramma minutum is employed as egg parasite.
2. Apanteles flavipes and Bracon brevicornis as larval parasites.
3. The lady beetles, Coccinella septempunctata and Menochilus.
Sexmaculata have been recorded predating on early stages of the larvae of this pest.

1. BRINJAL FRUIT BORER
Class — InsectaOrder - Lepidoptera
Family - Pyralidae
Genus - Leucinodes
Species — orbonalis (Guenee)Common Name: Brinjal shoot and fruit borer.Host Plants:Brinjal (main) and other Solanaceae plants and peas (alternative). L. orbonalis is the most
important and destructive pest of brinjal and has a countrywide distribution.
Identification Marks:The moths are medium sized of about 20 mm across the spread wings. The head and
thorax are blackish brown. The wings are white and provided with small hairs along the
apical and anal margins. A number of black, pale and light brown spots are found on the
fore and hind wings of the moth. The caterpillars are pale white and about 12 mm longwhen fully grown.

Fig. 8.5 : Life History of Leucinodes orbonalis
Life Cycle:
The moth lays elongated eggs singly or in small batches, on the leaf surface,
shoots and fruits. They hatch in 3-5 days. On hatching the caterpillars start boring into the
shoot, leaf midrib, petiole and fruits and feeds on the internal tissues. The larvaundergoes 5-moults in 10-15 days. The fifth instar larva is stout pink and measures about
1.6 cm in length. Pupation takes place in a cocoon on the plant and lasts for 6-8 days.
Moth lives 2-5 days and the female lays up to 250 eggs. The larva is parasitized byPristomerus testaceus Morl, Cremastus flauoorbitalis and Bracon species.
Nature of Damage:
The larval stage is the only destructive stage. In the early stages the larvae boreinto tender shoot as a result the infested shoots droop down and ultimately dry up. Thelarvae also bore into flower buds and developing fruits under the calyx, leaving no visible
signs of infestation. The attacked fruits show holes on them plugged with excreta. In case
of severe infestation in the initial stages, there may be no fruiting at all. The pinkish
larvae make zig-zag tunnels in the fruits and fruits are holed; such infested fruits are
rendered totally unfit for human consumption. Up to 70% loss of crop is caused by this
pest.

Fig: larva

Fig: symptoms of shoot attack

Fig: symptoms of fruit attack
Control Measures:
1. The affected fruits and drooping shoots, containing caterpillars inside, should be
clipped off and destroyed.
2. The crop should be sprayed with suspension / emulsion of any of the following
insecticides.

3. The biological agencies like, Braconid wasps (Bracois chinensis, Shirakia
schoenobi) and Ichneumonid wasps (Trathela flauoorbitais) parasitize the larvae
of this pest.
See Web resource: http://www.avrdc.org/LC/eggplant/borer.html

7. MANGO STEM BORER

Class — Insecta

Order — Coleoptera

Family — Cerambycidae

Genus — Batocera

Species — rubus (Linn.)

The mango, the king of fruits in India, suffers from many serious
pests, among them mango stem borer is the most important. It is very common in Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh.

Host Plants : This pest is found on the planted plants like mango, fig, rubber and jack.

Identification Marks:

The adult beetles are well built, large sized, measure about 5 cm long in length and brownish yellow/grey coloured. It has orange yellow spots on thorax and has hard forewings (elytra); lateral spines on the prothorax and long antennae and legs. The grubs are large, yellowish white in colour, fleshy in appearance and measures about 100 x 18 mm. with black head bearing strong mandibles.

Fig.: stem borer

Fig: Grub (larva)

Life Cycle :

The female beetle lays single egg under the loose bark or in a diseased part of trunk or in the crevices of stems. After the incubation period of 14 to 17 days the egg hatches out. The grubs on hatching penetrate into the stem or even the roots feeding on the woody tissue and make tunnels. The larval stage last for 3 to 6 months; then they pupate in the stem and remain in the pupal stage for 3 to 6 months over winter and the adults generally emerge during the monsoon. Duration of life cycle may extend 1 – 2 years.

Nature of damage:

The grubs make zig-zag galleries beneath the bark and tunnel into the trunks or main stems. As a result of feeding on the internal tissues, the attacked branches and stem die and wither away. Sometimes, frass and masses of refuse exude may be seen on the opening of the bored holes. In severe cases of attack, the branches may collapse and the tree may die.

Control Measures:

The population of grubs and pupae of stem borer can be reduced by cutting and destroying the infested branches.
The best way to control the grubs is to just inject borer solution (i.e. 2 parts of carbon disulphide + one part of chloroform and cresol) in the holes after which it should be closed by mud.
Pest population can also be effectively reduced by injecting 0.05% spray fluid of the following insecticides into the borer holes.

Insecticide	Quantity (ml.)/litre of water
DDVP (Dichlorvos) 76 EC	0.7
Endosulfan (Thiodan) 35 EC	1.5
Chiorpyriphos (Durshan) 20 EC	2.5

6. Aphids :

Class — Insecta

Order — Homoptera

Family — aphididae

This group of insects are pests on several crops, vegetables and found in different

seasons all over Maharashtra. Some species are feeding jowar and groundnut in the

kharif season, while some are on cabbage, cauliflower and safflower in the rabi

season. The cultivated crops like jowar, maize, groundnut, wal, mug, udid, bhendi,

chavali, beans, lucerns, cotton and awala are infested in the kharif season and

cauliflower, cabbage, knolkhol, peas, safflower, brinjal, tondli and wheat are attacked

in rabi season. Some fruit trees like citrus also are infested by some species of aphids.

Following are the common (Aphid) pests occur all over Maharashtra on different

crops.:

1. Bajri and Jowar, wheat, maize - Rhophalosiphurn, maidis F.

2. Sugarcane -Aphis sacchari Z.

3. Pulses - Aphis medicaginis kie.

4. Peas - Macrosiphum pisi kalt.

5. Mug, udid, chavali, beans, wal and groundnut - Aphis cracciuora koch.

6. Lucerne - Therioaphis sexmaculata.

7. Potato and Bhendi - Myzus persicae Sulz. Aphis gossypii Glover.

8. Brinjal - Myzus persicae S.

9. Cucurbits and cotton - Aphis malvae koch. Aphis gossypii G.

10. Vegetables - Breuicoryne brassicae Linn.

11. Safflower - Dactynotus compositae Theb.

12. Citrus - Toxoptera auranti Boy. Toxoptera citricidis Kirk.

Identification Marks:

Most of the aphids are generally light green or slightly yellow in colour except the

safflower species which is black. They are tiny soft bodied insects; the adult is oblong

about 1-2 mm long and has two projections called cornicles on the dorsal side of the

abdomen. Aphids are very sluggish insects and do not move much in their wingless form

and generally remain stationary after inserting their minute beaks in the leaf tissue, due to

their stationary habits and small size, they are often confused by laymen as eggs of some

insects. In severe attack numerous aphids are found on the undersurface of leaves and in

case of jowar, they may be common in whorls also. Most aphids are wingless but in the

later season or at the maturity of the crop, winged adult forms are also found. Their wings

are thin, transparent, sometimes with black lines on them, and are held like a roof over

the body. The Nymphs are smaller in size with greenish or brownish in colour.

Fig: wingless form

Fig: Abdominal cornicals

Fig: Winged form

Life history :

Both alate or winged and apterous or wingless forms produce young ones

viviparously (laying young one) and parthenogenetically. All the individuals normally

seen are the females, while the males are not very common or are almost absent in our

climatic conditions. A single female produces a batch of 8 to 22 nymphs per day.

Nymphs undergo four moults before reaching the adult stage. The life cycle is completed

in 7 to 9 days and there are many generations completed in a year.

The young ones develop into mature females and thus continue the life cycle. The rate of

reproduction is very rapid and the pest increases in abundance within a few weeks,

resulting in the presence of hundreds of these small greenish and roundish individuals

appearing on the under surface of leaves. At the end of the season as the crop approaches

maturity, winged individuals appear from the wingless forms and they migrate to other

crops to continue their life cycle.

Nature of Damage:

Nymphs as well as adults suck the cell sap by sucking type of mouth parts in the form of

a beak which is inserted in the tissue from the lower surface of the leaves and their

continued feeding lead to the general yellowing of leaves and subsequent drying. As they

take an excessive amount of cell sap, they also excrete a large amount of sugary solution

(honeydew like substance) which comes to lounge on the leaf surface. On this sugary

solution develop black sooty moulds (capnodium sp.) which blacken the surface of the

leaf on which the pest feeds. This is frequently seen on the infested leaves. The sooty

mould is not parasitic on the plant but remains as a saprophyte, on the surface but its

presence in excessive amounts interferes with the photosynthetic activity of the plant.

These insects are known to transmit virus diseases of certain crops like cardamom and

papaya.

Control Measures:

1. Spraying with nicotine solution (1: 800) with five parts of soap or pyrethrum

solution (1: 1000) or fish oil, rosin soap (1 : 800) was recommended previously.

2. Treatment with 0.02 % endrin, methyl parathion, diazinon or 0.05 per cent

malathion gives good effect against pest.

3. 0.1 percent to 0.2 percent carbaryl or 0.02 percent phosphamidon spray is quite

effective against the pest.

4. Application of insecticides like thiometon, phosphamidon, endrin + sulphur,

parathion, diazinon or menazon at 0.02 percent, dimethoate at 0.03 percent

concentration has also been observed to be quite effective against the pest.

5. 10% phorate or disyston granules applied at planting at 25 kg per hectare keeps

crop free from aphids for 30 days.

6. DDT should not be used against aphids as it is not so effective but on the contrary

it kills their parasites and predators.

2.3 Non insect pests: Rats and Bandicoots, Crabs, Snails, Slugs, Birds and Squirrels.

2.3 NON-INSECT PESTS

In addition to insect pests, many other animal pests attack the agricultural crops, stored

grains, vegetables, fruits and stored products, etc., and cause damage to them. In India it

has been estimated that about 5-10% of damage to agricultural crops and stored products

is caused by non-insect pests. The important non-insect pests which cause damage are

rats in fields and warehouses, bandicoots, wild animals like Jackals and pigs, birds, crabs,

snails etc. A brief account of some non-insect pest and their control measure are

described below:

1. Rats and Bandicoots:

Rats and Bandicoots damage the agricultural crops plants like rice, wheat, jowar,

sugarcane, etc. by cutting down the plants and feeding on them. The groundnut crop is

attacked by rats during harvest. Rat-burrows damage the irrigation canals also. Rats cause

heavy damage to stored grains in godowns. It has been estimated that a single rat consumes about

9 kg of food grains per year. It has been found that rats spoil (due to contamination of excreta)

about ten times more than it consumes. In India, it is estimated that the rat populatiqnis about

2400 million. The common species of rats recorded in India are, Rattus rattus (Black rat) and

Rattus norvegicus (Brown rat). The black rats are expert climbers and prefer to live in the roofs

of buildings.

1. Types and general characteristics of Rat (Rodent).

In several tropical countries rodents (rats and mice) cause much more loss and damage to

food grain than insect pests. Three species are prevalent: the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus), the house mouse (Mus musculus) and the roof rat (Rattus rattus) figure 1.

Fig. 1. Common species of rodents in storage.

(AGROTEC/UNDP/OPS, 1991)

Fig: Bandicoots bengalensis

4.7.2. Habits and characteristics of rodents:

· Usually they do same activities every day

· The follows same path over and over

· They are away of new things as for example new baits

· They can climb or jump until 60 and 90 cm

· They can swim across pools of water

· They dig and barrow holes through soil, hard structures, containers and objects

The rats as well as bandicoots are prolific breeders. Their breeding period starts at the age of 3-4

moths and continue through the year and a single female produces five litters in a year, each litter

usually consists of nine to ten young ones. Thus, a pair of rat may give rise to about 800 young

ones in a year. In coastal areas of Maharashtra, the coconut is reported to be damaged by rats.

They remain in the crowns of the coconut. Palm feeding on the nuts of all stages. They not only

damage the grains and crop plants but also act as carries for some germs (leading to produce

diseases (i.e. plague, etc.) Rattus rattus is the common species of rat, nocturnal in habit.

Bandicoots are also nocturnal in habitat they have elongated, pointed muzzle used for rooting the

soil. They are pests of grains in field and store grains in houses and godowns and root crops as

like rat.

4.7.3. Rodents loss and damage to food grain:

· They damage crop in field and storage

· They eat and destroy the grain

· They foul and contaminate grain and cooked food with their feces, urine and hairs

· They can destroy buildings, structures, containers and personal clothings and bedding

· They spillage stacked bagged foods, storage structures and food containers

· They can attack young chicks and may attempt to feed on human feet, causing sores and

walking difficulties to their victims

· They may cause disease to man and animals

4.8. Rodents control methods:

· By using various types of rodents traps

· By using domesticated cats

· By hunting rodents in the probably hiding places.

Control Measures:

The rats and bandicoots can be killed by anyone or combined method described below:

(i) Hunting : Hunting consists of group of persons accompanied by trained cats and dogs. Men

dig out the rat and bandicoot holes and when the animals come out of the holes, cats or dogs kill

them. At times the burrows are flooded with the water to force the rats and bandicoots out and

they can be killed mechanically.

(ii) Traps : This old method to catch the rats by various mechanical devices which are used in

modified form in different locality to control the rats. This method takes much time and man

power. So practically, it is very difficult to apply in larger field areas. This method is also

practiced in houses to catch rats. With the help of. traps containing attractive food near their

burrows, rats can be trapped. If one of the rat is caught in the trap, due to the strong instinct of

self- preservation others keep away from the trap. Thus, the traps are ineffective in large scale

operations.

(iii) Chemical control (Poisonings) : The chemical means of rat control have proved to be most

effective against Rat War. Chemicals of various nature and origin are applied with different

modes of action affecting the rat population. The following are the most commonly used

chemical, preparations very effective on rats and bandicoots as poison baits.

(a) Zinc Phosphide (Zn3P2) : This is very common poison used to kill the rats and bandicoots. It

is a black amorphous, poisonous powder which evolves Phosphine (PH3) gas when it comes in

contact with moisture. The preparation of poison bait is as about 500 gms of moistened wheat

flour is mixed with 30 gms of poison and the bait is divided into about 200 pills of equal size.

Two pills are kept near the mouth of the burrow in the evening. For bandicoots baits of little

larger size are used.

(b) Barium carbonate : It is a weak poison, till it is satisfactory for use in houses. Barium

carbonate is white amorphous poison used for the destruction of rats. About 500 gms of Barium

carbonate is mixed with 2.5 kg of sufficiently moistened bajra flour to prepare the rat baits.

phosphide. It is also useful for field rats and bandicoots. The poison bait preparation involved

following composition.

White arsenic — 12gm

Cooked jowar flour — 1,000 gm

Groundnut kenel - 250 gm

Water — Sufficient to make a thick paste.

Prepare small pills/cakes of equal size and keep 2 or 3 pills in each burrow and then close the

burrow.

(iv) Strychnine Sulphate: As this chemical is highly toxic to human beings hence should be used

only when other poisons have failed. For the preparation, dissolve 30 gms of strychnine sulphate

in 60 ml of warm water. Heat 2 kg of jaggery in 500 ml of water to prepare a thick syrup. Then

mix both the solutions thoroughly and add to this 14 kg gram previously soaked for 12 hours in

water and make the approximately 15 grams bolls. Put 15 grams of poison bait boll in each

rat burrow and then it is to be closed with mud.

(v) Kuhia seeds (strychnous nux vomica) : Boil about 150 gms of the seeds in 2 litres of water so

often seeds then crushed and continue boiling to get 100 grn of the extract remains. For the

application follow the steps described for strychnine sulphate.

(vi) Warfarin : This isa popular rodenticide available in market. The action of this poison is slow

but causing internal haemorrhage. 0.5% warfarin baits are readily available in the market. Baits

must be eaten by rats for 4-5 days continuously to cause the death effect. Warfarin is highly toxic

to other animals hence one should take care while handling. Rats are more suspicious to new baits

so initially non- poisoning prebaiting for 2-3 days is essential to train the rats to come to regular

feeding points and on third or fourth day evening poison baits may be kept. On the next morning

the dead rats must be immediately removed with unea ten baits.

The composition is constitutes 1 part of warfarin ± 19 parts of food (bran) and vegetable oil.

Prakash in 1976 has mentioned that poison fed rat suffers by weakness due to loss of blood and

death may occur after 3 to 15 days of poisoning.

(vii) Moosh-Moosh : This is also readily available bait in the market in cake form. It is widely

used to control rats from rice, sugarcane coconut and soyabean fields. One or two cakes are

placed in each rat hole at 5-10 metre, intervals along bunds in fields. For coconut and oil palm

place two cakes on the crown (top) and at the base of each bunch of fruits. This rodenticide kills

85-100% rats with a single feeding. Application of Moosh Moosh is most economical and

effective.

(viii) Ratoon, Mortem rat kill etc. are readily available in the market in cake form. These are

equally effective as moosh-moosh for the control of rats and bandicoots.

(ix) Fumigation This involves the treating of rat burrows with the fumes of poisonous substances

called as Cyanogas A dust or Celphos tablets. The Cyanogas A’ dust is a powder, which when

comes in contact with the atmospheric moisture liberates HCN gas. It is highly toxic to rats,

bandicoots and other animals. Ceiphos is in tablet form containing 3 gms of Aluminium

Phósphide.

Mode of Application:

Apply the powder dust of Cyanogas ‘A by foot pump (fumigator) into burrows having

occupant rats and then close the mouth of burrow by wet mud. About 200 gms of calcium

cyanide A’ is enough to treat about 100 burrows, while for ceiphos tablets 2-3 tablets is

put in each burrow, and then close it with mud. Both can be used in warehouses and

godowns in the same procedure like field treatment.

The following precautions should be taken during construction of warehouses and

godowns.

(a) Doors are constructed in such a way that the space left between the lower edge of the

doors and floor should be less than 1 cm. The bottom of the doors must be covered with

metal cuffs or plastic cuffs.

(b) Flooring of the warehouses and godowns should be without of cracks and gaps, if

such are there it should be properly closed.

covering them with wire netting (mesh with less than 1 cm pore size).

(x) Electrocuting : In many advanced countries, iron fences carrying electric charges are

placed around the fields infested with rats so that rat when move across and come in

contact with the electrically charged fences get killed. This method is very useful but due

to inherent danger of electrocution to men and other animals hence such a device is not

practicable in India.

(xi) Ultrasonic devices: Hanery Simon (1967) has recommended that ultrasonic waves

are very much powerful killers of rats without any damage to human beings.

Ultrasonic equipments are now available in market which can produce sounds inaudible

to human ears but such sounds which will cause pain and irritation in the ears of rats.

Rats exposed to such sounds may eventually die. Such equipments may be used both

indoors and outdoors. It has been claimed by the one manufacturer of such proprietary

machine that rats can be eliminated within 72 hours. Ultrasonic methods can be used only

in godowns and warehouses with facilities of electricity.

4.8.1. Improved rodents control methods:

· Prevent rodents entering by:

- solid walls structures

- use of metal sheets or chicken wire to structures walls which keep off rodents

- use of rat-guards as been before

· control can be achieved by baiting (poisoning). This requires training to be successful

and to prevent accidents and death to humans table 25.

· all these previous methods are strongly supported by a goods standard of hygiene and

storage management.

Table 1: Recommended rodenticides

Warfarin Coumatetralyl

chlorophacinone

Anti-coagulant for mixing with dry bait or in powder form as

a rodenticidal dust, or in soluble form used in drinking water

for rodents

Difenacoum Broinadiolone

Anti-coagulant effective to rodent resistant to other anticoagulant

poisons

Brodifacoum An anti-coagulant most effective to all types of rodents.

4.9. Quality and Economic Loss

Beside weight loss, which may appear small, deterioration in quality of maize due to

insect attack or rats damage is also a great concern. The grain that has been damage by

the insect and rats are undesirable in the market, causing great economic loss to the

producer and quality loss to the consumer.

Non Insect pest

2. Crabs (Parateiphusa spp.):

The crabs have been reported to cause heavy losses to paddy crop in Ratnagiri (Konkan),

Thana and Kolaba districts of Maharashtra State.

Fig. rice field crab

Three species of crabs are known to damage in our country locally referred as Khekada,

Chimburi and Muthya. All these crabs are polyphagous. They cut the young paddy, plants near

the ground level and carry them to their burrows for feeding. They are active during night; as they

are nocturnal. Besides their crop damaging activity, they prepare a series of burrow in the addy

fields due to which water is not retained in the field. Thus, crab is major crustacean pest of paddy

crop, it requires intensive control.

Control Measures:

(i) Crab burrows fumigated with the cyanogas dust.

(ii) Poison baiting of 5% DDT, ± 1% dieldrin or 0.08% endrin with rice syrup or .0.5% endrin or

parathion at the rate of 80-100 ml per burrow is quite effective is controlling the crabs.

Snails and Slugs:

These are non-insect invertebrate pests and are herbivorous in habit. The land snails and slugs

damage gardens, orchards, green houses and mushroom beds as they feed on sacculent parts

of seedlings and mature plants. Helix spp feed on living vegetable matter like leaves and

fruits during night, Pila suppose to damage paddy fields, and African snail Achatina

fulica is serious pest of fruits, vegetables and ornamental plants in coastal areas of Orissa,

W.B., Assam, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Fig. 1.7: Lymnaea

Snails can cause damage to crops, particularly at the early stages and thus be agricultural

pests. Besides this it may be vectors of diseases such as Schistosomiasis. from veterinary

and medical point of view.

Control Measures:

The best known chemical control of snails is the use of poison bait with metaldehyde, a

polymer of acetaldehyde. It is toxic to snails by contact as well as ingestion. The

chemical immobilises snails and copious slime is exuded out of the body of snails and

they die of dehydration. It is applied as a bait mixed with bran and the dosage is very low.

About 400 gm of metaldehyde mixed with 30 kg of bran is sufficient with 30 kg of bran

is sufficient per hectare will control slugs. Metaldehyrde have low mammalian toxicity.

Fig.: Helix

Fig: African giant snail

Fig: Banana Slug

DNOC or dinitro-O-cyclo-hexyphenol reported to be very effective against snails when

used as herbicide. Copper sulphate and N-trityl morpnoline (frescon) have been found

very useful against snails when they are spread on meadows harbouring these animals.

4. Birds:

Birds are often considered to be beneficial for the control of insects as they often live on

insects and reduce the population. But birds may cause damage to early season and off

season crops. They have been found to be very destructive to the cobs of maize or the

heads of sunflower or ripening fruits. They may cause damage to tender seedlings of

vegetables.

Fig. : Passer domestica

Fig. 1. House sparrow, Passer domesticus. Male (left) and female (right).

Many species of birds are found throughout India, out of which some birds are considered

harmful to agricultural crops. Some of them are as following:

(i) Crow (Corvus Splendens Vieillot): Crows cause considerable damage to ripe fruits in

orchards and also ripening grains of maize and fruits. The crows are particularly attracted to the

grains when they are exposed on a cob. They may prove a menace to the successful growth of

field crops as well as harvest of fruits. They are often seen in flocks in maize and other fields.

(ii) Sparrows (Passer domesticus): The flocks of sparrows is a great menace to various field

crops like Jowar, bajara, wheat, maize, etc. mainly in the seed setting stage. They also threaten

mulberry and many other small sized juicy fruits and fruit buds they visit the ripening fruit fields,

particularly. Those of wheat in the spring season, and cause much damage both by feeding and

causing the grains to shed.

Damage by House sparrows

House sparrows consume grains in fields and in storage. They do not move great

distances into grain fields, preferring to stay close to the shelter of hedgerows. Localized

damage can be considerable since sparrows often feed in large numbers over a small area.

Sparrows damage crops by pecking seeds, seedlings, buds, flowers, vegetables, and

maturing fruits. They interfere with the production of livestock, particularly poultry, by

consuming and contaminating feed. Because they live in such close association with

humans, they are a factor in the dissemination of diseases (chlamydiosis, coccidiosis,

erysipeloid, Newcastle’s, parathypoid, pullorum, salmonellosis, transmissible

gastroenteritis, tuberculosis, various encephalitis viruses, vibriosis, and yersinosis),

internal parasites (acariasis, schistosomiasis, taeniasis, toxoplasmosis, and

trichomoniasis), and household pests (bed bugs, carpet beetles, clothes moths, fleas, lice,

mites, and ticks).

In grain storage facilities, fecal contamination probably results in as much monetary loss

as does the actual consumption of grain. House sparrow droppings and feathers create

janitorial problems as well as hazardous, unsanitary, and odoriferous situations inside and

outside of buildings and sidewalks under roosting areas. Damage can also be caused by

the pecking of rigid foam insulation inside buildings. The bulky, flammable nests of

house sparrows are a potential fire hazard. The chattering of the flock on a roost is an

annoyance to nearby human residents.

Nestlings are primarily fed insects, some of which are beneficial and some harmful to

humans. Adult house sparrows compete with native, insectivorous birds. Martins and

bluebirds, in particular, have been crowded out by sparrows that drive them away and

destroy their eggs and young. House sparrows generally compete with native species for

favored nest sites.

(iii) Parrots (Psittacula spp.): About eight species of parrots have been recorded in India.

Out of these species, large Indian parakeet (P. eupatria) is very common in Maharashtra.

This species causes heavy damage to orchards by eating fruits and also spoiling the fruits

by cutting it with beak. The parakeets are among the most wasteful a destructive birds.

They gnaw at and cut into bits all sorts of near-ripe fruits such as guava, ber, mango,

plums, peaches, etc.

Control of Birds:

Various methods are employed which include covering by nets using scaring devices,

reducing their population by shooting, trappin and use of chemicals.

(a) Trapping the birds in nets or catching them with the help o sticky substance ‘Lassa’.

(b) A piece of Chapatti dipped in 0.04% parathion and placed or top of roof is a good bait

for crows.

stage.

(d) Scaring devices using mechanical, acoustic and visual means are normally employed,

i.e. Beating of drums to produce sounds is still in vogue in many parts of the country

particularly in the harvest season.

(e) Fire crackers placed at regular intervals along a cotton rope. The rope burns from one

end and ignites the crackers at regular interval which produce sounds and scare away the

birds.

Fig. 1.5 : Psittcula eupatria

Fig. 1.4 : Corvus splendens

(f) Loud sounds due to the burning of acetylene gas

produced at intervals are utilised to scare away birds and small animals.

(g) Birds may be scared by display of scare crows, dead birds, visually attractive flags,

etc.

For the preservation of bird species, trapping, shooting and use of poisonous chemicals as

baits has not been favoured in many places, instead scareing is adopted.

1. Chemical control:

Chemicals used for controlling pests can be divided into different groups based on the nature of pests to be controlled

like:

(i) Acaricides : Chemicals used to control of mites, ticks, etc.

(ii) Algicides : Used for the destruction of algae and other aquatic vegetation.

(iii) Antispetics : For the protection of non-metals from microorganisms.

(iv) Arboricides : Destruction of undesirable arborell and bushy vegetation.

(v) Bactericides : For the control of bacterial diseases.

(vi) Fungicides : For the control of plant diseases caused by various fungi.

(vii) Herbicides : For the control of weeds.

(viii) Insecticides : For the control of harmful insects/pests.

(ix) Limacides or Molluscides : For the control of molluscs.

(x) Nematocides : For the control of nematodes.

(xi) Rodenticides : For the control of rodents and other vertebrate a nima is.

Insecticides:

Insecticides can be divided into the following groups according to the nature of their penetration or mode of action into

the insect body as following:

(1) Stomach poisons. (ii) Contact poisons.

(iii) Systematic poisons. (iv) Fumigants.

(1) Stomach poison : This type of poisons act through the stomach by taken in along the food and absorbed through the

digestive tract. These are commonly mixed with dust or its solution is spread up and down in and above the plant, the

insect die of eating them. Generally, stomach poisons are applied against insects possessing chewing type of mouth

parts. But they are also used for insects with sponging, siphoning, lapping or sucking mouth parts under certain

condition.

Good stomach poison should possess the following properties.

(i) It should be stable, cheap and available in large quantities.

(ii) It should not be distastefull as to repel the pests.

(iii) It should not be phytotoxic and soluble in water.

(iv) Should be uniformly spread on treated surface of plants and not leave any harmful residue on plant surfaces. There

are some important stomach poisons e.g. lead arsenate, calcium arsenate, methoxychior, paris green and certain

phosphates, BHC, DDT and fluorine compounds.

(a) Lead Arsenates:

Lead arsenates were discovered in 1892 in the USA and first used I as insecticide in Massachusetts to control gypsy

moths. It acts as

stomach poison. lead arsenate exist in two form i.e. in acidic and basic forms. The acid ortho-arsenate (Pb HASO4) or

white arsenate burns the tender parts of the plants hence used on plants such as orchards, forests shade trees, shrubs, etc.

for the control of chewing insects which are not much important and the basic orthoarsenate [Pb4 (PbOH) (ASO4)3].

It is more stable and less toxic to insects but it needs to be used in greater amounts and takes a longer time compared to

the acidic compounds. The commercially available products are mixtures of these two forms. The acid lead arsenate

contains about 20% metallic arsenic while the basic arsenate contains 14% metallic arsenic equivalent. It is readily act

on digestive enzymes leading death of insects.

Lead arsenate is a relatively weak poison and shows high degree of safety to foliage plants. The acid form decomposes

in alkalies, some soaps and hard alkaline waters. lead arsenate may be applied as a dust or spray. It also used as poison

bait after mixing with bran and against beetles damaging potatoes and other vegetables.

In India, it was used as spray for the control of lemon butterfly, caster semilooper, Epilachna and Aulacophora

beetles on cucurbits and in poison baits for the control of grasshoppers and locusts.

Arsenic toxicity results in the disintegration of the midgut epithelial cells with vacuolated cytoplasm and clumped

chromatin of the nuclei. The symptoms of toxication by arsenicals are regurgitation, diliness and quiescence. Other

important arsenicals are calcium arsenate, arsenious oxide, arsenic oxide and paris green.

(b) Parisgreen (Emerald green, French green, Mitis green and Schweenfurter green):

This is a copper acetoarsenate ECu (C2H302) — 3 Cu (ASO2)2] used first in the U.S.A. in 1865 as a stomach poison for

the control of Colorado potato beetle. It is a brilliant green powder, contains 33-39% metallic arsenic, 2-3% of which is

water soluble. It is very expensive due to high content of copper, and shows high phototoxic properties as it burns

foliage and hence used as mosquito larvicide in limited. It is mostly used in poison baits against pests having chewing

types of mouth parts. (i.e. 1-2 kg parisgreen + 25 kg wheat bran + 120 kg of jaggery or molasses). It is mostly used to

control leather jackets and slugs. In India it is not in use. Parisgreen is also one of the constituents of the safe Bordeaux

mixture. But the mixing of lime sulphur produces compounds injurious to plants due to which it has been replaced by

the recent synthetic organic insecticides.

2. Contact poison:

The toxic chemical which kills the insects by simple contact or touch is termed as contact poison. The contact poisons

are usually utilised as spraying or dusting form. These are act by direct penetration through parts of body wall i.e.

through sutures, bases of setae, membranes and through cuticle into the blood (Haemolymph) acting as general or nerve

poison. The contact poisons are highly lipophilic so readily absorbed by the liquid present in the epicuticle of

exoskeleton.

Contact poisons are naturally occurring compounds like nicotine, pyrethrum and rotenone or synthetic compounds like

BHC, DDT and parathion or mixture of compounds from either one or both groups. Generally, these are soluble in

plant and insect oils or animal fats. The lethal action of these compounds in the field are said to be due to the following

three mechanisms.

(i) Transport from outside the cuticle to the site of action.

(ii) These enters inside the body and usually inhibits the enzymes or other protein interactions.

(iii) Subsequently, acts on nervous, respiratory or other system involving the biochemical effects on the pests.

The contact poisons may be instantaneous in their action when they are called “knockdown poisons” like pyrethrum

or may take several hours to kill the pest. Many contact poisons like DDT, BHC are also act stomach poisons if taken

into the stomach of an insect. Some of the important contact poisons are BHC, DDT, nicotine preparations, lime

sulphur, toxaphene, chiordan, dieldrin, aidrin, methoxychlor, pyrethrum, oil emulsions, rotenone, thiocyanate, TEPP,

parathion and systox.

(i) BHC : (Gemmexane, C6H6C16) Benzene hexachioride (also called 666 and Gemmexane, a trade name given by ICI

Ltd. India) was first synthesized in 1825 by Michael Faradey with the name BHC also called HCH (Hexachioro-Cyclo-

Hexane). It was discovered as active insecticide by A. P. W. Dupire in France (1941) and by F.D. Leicester in England

(1942) independently. But the technical BHC is y — isomer was made known by F. J.D. Thomas in 1943 in England.

Crude BHC is greyish or brownish amorphous solid and has a strong musty (smelling mouldy) odour. It is formulated

generally as wettable powder or as dust.

BHC (HCH)

It is produced by chlorinating benzene with six atoms of chlorine in presence of sunlight. Since the aromatic character

of the ring disappears.

Like other organochiorines, it is insoluble in organic solvents. BHC is a mixture of 6-isomers alpha (a, 55-70%), Beta

(f3, 5-14%), Gamma (y, 10-18%), delta (6, 6-8%), etc. and epilson (r and e, 3-4%). Of these, the Beta (13) and

epsilon (c) isomers are inactive, the a, 6 and isomers slightly or moderately active and the y (gamma) isomer is the

most active. The gamma isomer was first isolated by Von der Linden a German Chemist in 1912 by breaking crude

BHC with methyl alcohol or acetic acid. BHC containing 99 per cent of the gamma isomer is called lindane which is

odourless unlike BHC. But it is thousand times more active than BHC, does not accumulate in fat of animals and is

safer for plants.

Action of BHC : It acts as a contact as well as stomach poison. It is a nerve poison and creates paralysis leading to

death. Pharmacological data strongly suggest that it is a neurotoxic agent. It attacks the entire central nervous system

and acts as an inhibitor of the Na±, K± and Mg2, ATP asses and blocks the activity of the sodium-potassium pump that

maintains the ionic transport of these ions across the nerve membrane and impulse conduction. It is quicker in action

than DDT. It depresses the rate of heart beats and elevates the blood pressure. It causes pathological changes in the

midgut epithelium also.

The insecticides chiorodane, heptachlor, dieldrin, endrin and endosuiphon are chlorinated cyclic hydrocarbons and

grouped under cyclodiene insecticides. BHC is applied as broad spectrum insecticide for the control of most insect

pests particularly insects with chewing, mandibulale etc. mouth parts.

(ii) Malathion (Carbonphos) : Malathion (C10 H19 06 PS2) is 0, O-dimethyl-S — (1, 2-dicarbethoxy ethyl)

phosphordithioate. Technical grade material is 95-98% pure with an unpleasant odour, light yellow to dark brown

liquid with a strong offensive odour. It has very low solubility in water, slightly soluble in mineral oils and soluble in

most organic solvents, unstable in an alkaline medium and is a contact and stomach poison. Commonly used for the

control of a wide variety of pests. It is also applied for the control of mosquitoes, flies, and bed bugs. It has, a low

phytotoxicity and the lowest to mammals as compared to all other organophosphates.

Malathion

It is formulated as 50% (EC) emulsifiable concentrated aerosol, 5% dust, 25% wettable powder, granule;

low volume concentrate formulations and very effective against crop pests such as aphids, plant bugs,

caterpillars, household pests and livestock pests (lice, fleas, ticks).

It is one of the safest chemical available in market. It’s acute oral and dermal LD50 values for rat are 1400-

1900 and 4000 mg/kg respectively.

3. Systematic Poisons:

Systematic poisons are toxicants when applied to any part of plant, can absorbed (penetrate) plant tissues

and translocated (migrated) from the point of application to other parts of the plants in concentrations,

thereby rendering the plants toxic to the pests feeding on them. Most modern insecticides have the property

of penetrating plant tissues by combining with a lipoid cuticle but only the systematic insecticides can

translocated long distances, making the whole plant insecticidal.

Dr. Schrader and co-workers showed very first that some insecticides possess systemic properties. These

chemicals have selective in their action and are fairly less harmful to the beneficial insects.

Systemic poisons are used to control the insects having piercing and sucking type of mouth parts i.e. aphids,

plant bugs, caterpillars, etc. Since the poisons when applied to the root, stem, leaves or seeds of plants, it is

absorbed and reaches different parts of plants.

According to the decomposition of insecticides inside the plant, Ripper (1952) classified systemic poison

into three types as follows.

(a Y Stable systemic poisons : These insecticides do not decompose or change inside the plant tissue are

called stable systemics e.g. selenium.

(b) Endolytic systemic poisons The insecticides which go unchanged from the plant into the insect body

and change into a toxicant inside the latter are called endolytic systemic poisons. e.g. Schradan, dimefox.

toxicants inside the plants themselves are called endometatoxic systemics. e.g. demeton.

(i) Thimet (Phorate, C7H1702PS3). It is 0, 0-diethyl-S (ethyl thiomethyl) dithiophosphate. This is a colourless, clear

mobile liquid containing not less than 90% phorate, less soluble in water but miscible in many organic solvents like

xylene, carbontetrachloride, alcohols; ethers, esters and vegetable oils, unstable in alkaline and humid conditions. It

changes into toxic compounds (suiphoxides and sulphones) inside the plants.

Thimet

It acts as systemic poison, contact poison and fumigant on ins&ts besides this it is also effective against nematodes and

mites. It is extensively used for the control of sorghum soot fly, aphids, sucking insects of cotton, tobacco and

vegetables, gall midege of rice, etc. Formulated as emulsifiable concentrate, dust and granules. It’s acute and dermal

LD50 values for rat are 2-3 and 70-300 mg/kg respectively. Thimete is trade name in market.

(ii) Metasystox (Methyldemeton) : It is a 0-O-dimethyl-S-32— (ethylthio)-ethyl phosphorothiolate belongs to

organophosphorus. The technical grade product is a mixture of thiono and thiolo isomers of 0, 0-dimethyl-, 1 -2-

ethylmercapto-ethyl-thiophosphate. The product contains a small amount of trimethylthiophosphate, 2-

hydroxydiethylsuiphide and some other ester of of thisphosphoric acid occur as impurities. The thiono isomer is a

liquid with a characteristic, unpleasant odour and B.P. 930 C, slightly soluble in water. While thioloisomer is a liquid and

boiling at 102°C. It is more soluble in water than the thiono-somer. Both the isomers are highly soluble in organic

solvents. It is formulated as 25% and 50% effective emulsified concentrate.

Metasystox after entering the plant body is readily Isomerised to the thiolo isomer which is further metabolised. Being

a organo phosphorous compound, it is irreversible inhibitor of the cholinesterase enzymes of the neuromuscular system.

Metasystox

4. Fumigants:

Fumigants are the chemicals or insecticides in a gaseous form that enter the body• through the spiracles and spread all

over via the

tracheal system of the pests (insects). Fumigants kill insects, in two ways.

(i) By clogging the tracheal system and cutting it off from the oxygen supply and

(ii) By their own toxic action interfering with the respiratory process. Therefore, these chemicals, kill the

insects irrespective of their mouth parts or feeding habits.

Fumigants are used in vapour state to keep the insect population under check in buildings, storage,

shipholds and sometimes in the soil. Fumigants are commonly mixture of two or more gases formulated in

form of liquid under pressure e.g. phosphene or hydrogen phosphide gas is released from the tables

containing aluminium phosphide and ammonium carbonate in the presence of moisture.

A good fumigant should possess —

(i) A good volatile with a deep penetrating power.

(ii) Should not corrosive to the equipments and household articles.

(iii) Should not be inflammable.

(iv) It should be not harm to man and plants.

Generally, fumigants are used in warehouses, kothis, bins, airtight containers, tent houses, ships, aeroplanes,

factories, mills, hotels, prisons, theaters, etc. to kill insects like ants, termites, grubs, nematodes, stem

borers, bark eating caterpillars, intestinal worms, chinch bugs, grasshoppers, etc.

(i) Carbon tetrachioride (Cd4) This is colourless liquid or gas with a chloroform like smell (pungent) sp.

gr. 1.595 at 200 C and vapour pressure 114.5 mm Hg at 20° C; insoluble in water and soluble in organic

solvents. Not inflammable or explosive. It has low insect toxicity. Commonly it is used alone only where

fire hazards are acute or in small scale fumigation. But when used with carbon disuiphide Or ethylene

dibromide it reduces fire hazards. It is also used as diluent to increase the volatility and distribution of other

fumigants like methyl bromide, ethylene dichloride and chioropicrin. V

Carbon tetrachioride gas enters the insect spiracles during respiration leading to clogging and finally death

of insects.

Carbon tetrachioride is very toxic to warm blooded animals causing severe kidney and liver damage. V

(ii) Ethylene .dichloride (C2H4C12).: Ethylene dichioride first synthesized bycotton and roark in 1927. It

is a colourless sweet smelling liquid with B.P. 83.5°C, M.P. — 36°C and sp. gr. 1.25, miscible with• organic

solvents. It can remain stable with water, alkalies and acids. J V is highly inflammable with low mammalian

toxicity and moderate insect toxicity and mainly used to control the all types of stored grains.

Ethylene dichioride is commonly mixed with the carbofl tetrachioride and available in the market as a

ED/CT mixture of 3 1 proportion (EDCT). EDCT is harmless to seeds, less toxic to man and other

mammals.

EDCT is available in the form of liquid which is volatile at the room temperature and so easy in handling as

it can be applied by pouring it over clothes or on grain bags or grain bins. Emulsion of ethylene dichloride

prepared in water is used to control the peach tree borer. Food substances rich in fats absorb appreciable

amounts of the ethylene dichioride gas and requires long periods of aeration to remove the taint and smell.

CULTURAL CONTROL

Definition : Manipulation of cultural practices to the disadvantage of pests.

I. Farm level practices

II. Community level practices

1. Synchronized sowing : Dilution of pest infestation (eg) Rice, Cotton

2. Crop rotation : Breaks insect life cycle

3. Crop sanitation

a) Destruction of insect infested parts (eg.) Mealy bug in brinjal

b) Removal of fallen plant parts (eg.) Cotton squares

c) Crop residue destruction (eg.) Cotton stem weevil

Advantages

1. No extra skill

2. No costly inputs

3. No special equipments

4. Minimal cost

5. Good component in IPM

6. Ecologically sound

Disadvantages

1. No complete control

2. Prophylactic nature

3. Timing decides success

PHYSICAL CONTROL

Modification of physical factors in the environment to minimize (or) prevent pest problems. Use of physical forces like temperature, moisture, etc. in managing the insect pests.

A. Manipulation of temperature

1. Sun drying the seeds to kill the eggs of stored product pests.

2. Hot water treatment (50 - 55oC for 15 min) against rice white tip nematode.

3. Flame throwers against locusts.

4. Burning torch against hairy caterpillars.

5. Cold storage of fruits and vegetables to kill fruitflies (1 - 2oC for 12 - 20 days).

B. Manipulation of moisture

1. Alternate drying and wetting rice fields against BPH.

2. Drying seeds (below 10% moisture level) affects insect development.

3. Flooding the field for the control of cutworms.

C. Manipulation of light

1. Treating the grains for storage using IR light to kill all stages of insects (eg.) Infra-red seed treatment unit (Fig.1).

2. Providing light in storage go downs as the lighting reduces the fertility of

Indian meal moth, Plodia.

3. Light trapping.

D. Manipulation of air

1. Increasing the CO2 concentration in controlled atmosphere of stored grains to cause asphyxiation in stored product pests.

E. Use of irradiation

Gamma irradiation from Co60 is used to sterilize the insects in laboratory which compete with the fertile males for mating when released in natural condition.

(eg.) cattle screw worm fly, Cochliomyia hominivorax control in Curacao Island by

E.F.Knipling.

F. Use of greasing material

Treating the stored grains particularly pulses with vegetable oils to prevent the ovi-position and the egg hatching. eg., bruchid adults.

G. Use of visible radiation : Yellow colour preferred by aphids, cotton whitefly : yellow sticky traps.

H. Use of Abrasive dusts

1. Red earth treatment to red gram : Injury to the insect wax layer.

2. Activated clay : Injury to the wax layer resulting in loss of moisture leading to death. It is used against stored product pests.

3. Drie-Die : This is a porous finely divided silica gel used against storage

insects.

MECHANICAL CONTROL

Use of mechanical devices or manual forces for destruction or exclusion of

pests.

A. Mechanical destruction : Life stages are killed by manual (or) mechanical

force.

Manual Force

1. Hand picking the caterpillars

2. Beating : Swatting housefly and mosquito

3. Sieving and winnowing : Red flour beetle (sieving) rice weevil (winnowing)

4. Shaking the plants : Passing rope across rice field to dislodge caseworm and shaking neem tree to dislodge June beetles

5. Hooking : Iron hook is used against adult rhinoceros beetle

6. Crushing : Bed bugs and lice

7. Combing : Delousing method for Head louse

8. Brushing : Woolen fabrics for clothes moth, carper beetle.

Mechanical force

1. Entoletter : Centrifugal force - breaks infested kernels - kill insect stages - whole grains unaffected - storage pests.

2. Hopper dozer : Kill nymphs of locusts by hording into trenches and filled with soil.

3. Tillage implements : Soil borne insects, red hairy caterpillar.

4. Mechnical traps : Rat traps of various shapes like box trap, back break trap, wonder trap, Tanjore bow trap.

B. Mechanical exclusion

Mechanical barriers prevent access of pests to hosts.

1. Wrapping the fruits : Covering with polythene bag against pomegrante fruit borer.

2. Banding : Banding with grease or polythene sheets - Mango mealybug.

3. Netting : Mosquitoes, vector control in green house.

4. Trenching : Trapping marching larvae of red hairy catepiller.

5. Sand barrier : Protecting stored grains with a layer of sand on the top.

6. Water barrier : Ant pans for ant control.

7. Tin barrier : Coconut trees protected with tin band to prevent rat damage.

8. Electric fencing : Low voltage electric fences against rats.

Advantage of mechanical control

1. Home labour utilization
2. Low equipment cost
3. Ecologically safe

1. Limited application

Disadvantages
1. Rarely highly effective

2. Labour intensive

Mechanical Appliances in controlling the pests :

1. Light traps : Most adult insects are attracted towards light in night. This principle is used to attract the insect and trapped in a mechanical device.

a) Incandescent light trap : They produce radiation by heating a tungsten filament. The spectrum of lamp include a small amount of ultraviolet, considerable visible especially rich in yellow and red. (eg.) Simple incandescent light trap (Fig. 2), portable incandescent electric (Fig.3). Place a pan of kerosenated water below the light source.

b) Mercury vapour lamp light trap : They produce primarily ultraviolet, blue and green radiation with little red. (eg.) Robinson trap (Fig.4). This trap is the basic model designed by Robinson in 1952. This is currently used towards a wide range of Noctuids and other nocturnal flying insects. A mercury lamp

(125 W) is fixed at the top of a funnel shaped (or) trapezoid galvanized iron cone terminating in a collection jar containing dichlorvos soaked in cotton as insecticide to kill the insect.

c) Black light trap : Black light (Fig.5) is popular name for ultraviolet radiant energy with the range of wavelengths from 320-380 nm. Some commercial type like Pest-O-Flash, Keet-O-Flash are available in market. Flying insects are usually attracted and when they come in contact with electric grids, they become elctrocuted and killed.

2. Pheromone trap : Synthetic sex pheromones are placed in traps to attract males. The rubberised septa, containing the pheromone lure are kept in traps designed specially for this purpose and used in insect monitoring / mass trapping programmes. Sticky trap (Fig.6), water pan trap (Fig.7) and funnel type (Fig.8) models are available for use in pheromone based insect control programmes.

3. Yellow sticky trap : Cotton whitefly, aphids, thrips prefer yellow colour. Yellow colour is painted on tin boxes and sticky material like castor oil / vaseline is smeared on the surface (Fig.9). These insects are attracted to yellow colour and trapped on the sticky material.

4. Bait trap : Attractants placed in traps are used to attract the insect and kill them. (eg.) Fishmeal trap: This trap is used against sorghum shootfly. Moistened fish meal is kept in polythene bag or plastic container inside the tin along with cotton soaked with insecticide (DDVP) to kill the attracted flies

5. Pitfall trap helps to trap insects moving about on the soil surface, such as ground beetles, collembola, spiders. These can be made by sinking glass jars(or) metal cans into the soil. It consists of a plastic funnel, opening into a plastic beaker containing kerosene supported inside a plastic jar (Fig. 12).

6. Probe trap : Probe trap is used by keeping them under grain surface to trap stored product insect (Fig.13).

7. Emergence trap : The adults of many insects which pupate in the soil can be trapped by using suitable covers over the ground. A wooden frame covered with wire mesh covering and shaped like a house roof is placed on soil surface. Emerging insects are collected in a plastic beaker fixed at the top of the frame (Fig.14).

8. Indicator device for pulse beetle detection : A new cup shaped indicator device has been recently designed to predict timely occurrence of pulse beetle Callosobruchus spp. This will help the farmers to know the correct time of emergence of pulse beetle. This will help them in timely sun drying which can bill all the eggs.

Biological control

Definition

The study and utilization of parasitoids, predators and pathogens for the regulation of pest population densities.

Biological control can also be defined as the utilization of natural enemies to

reduce the damage caused by noxious organisms to tolerable levels. Biological control is often shortened to biocontrol.
Factors affecting biological control

1. Tolerance limit of crop to insect injury - Successful in crops with high tolerance limit

2. Crop value - Successful in crops with high economic value

3. Crop duration - Long duration crops highly suitable

4. Indigenous or Exotic pest - Imported NE more effective against introduced pest

5. If alternate host available for NE, control of target pest is less

6. If unfavourable season occurs, reintroduction of NE required

7. Presence of hyperparasites reduces effectiveness of biocontrol

8. Tritrophic interaction of Plant-Pest-Natural enemy affects success of biocontrol, e.g. Helicoverpa parasitization by Trichogramma more in timato than corn

9. Use of pesticides affect natural enemies

10. Selective insecticides (less toxic to NE required)

11. Identical situation for successful control does not occur

Qualities of an effective natural enemy

1. Adaptable to the environmental condition

2. Host specific (or narrow host range)

3. Multiply faster than the host (with high fecundity)

4. Short life cycle and high female : male ratio

5. High host searching capacity

6. Amenable for easy culturing in laboratory

7. Dispersal capacity

8. Free from hyper parasites

9. Synchronise life cycle with host

THREE MAJOR TECHNIQUES OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

1. Conservation and encouragement of indigenous NE

Defined as actions that preserve and increase NE by environmental manipulation. e.g. Use of selective insecticides, provide alternate host and refugia for NE.

2. Importation or Introduction

Importing or introducing NE into a new locality (mainly to control introduced

pests).

3. Augmentation

Propagation (mass culturing) and release of NE to increase its population. Two types,

(i) Inoculative release: Control expected from the progeny and subsequent generations only.

(ii) Inundative release: NE mass cultured and released to suppress pest directly

e.g. Trichogramma sp. egg parasitoid, Chrysoperla carnia predator

ROLE OF PARASITOIDS AND PREDATORS IN IPM

- Parasitoids and predators may be used in Agriculture and IPM in three ways. They are

i) Conservation

ii) Introduction

iii) Augmentation - (a) Inoculative release, (b) Inundative release

- Since biological control is safe to environment, it should be adopted as an important component of IPM.

- Biological control method can be integrated well with other methods namely

cultural, chemical methods and host plant resistance (except use of broad spectrum insecticides)

- Biological control is self propagating and self perpetuating

- Pest resistance to NE is not known

- No harmful effects on humans, livestock and other organisms

- Biological control is virtually permanent

- Biological agents search and kills the target pest

MICROBIAL CONTROL

- It is a branch of biological control

- Defined as control of pests by use of microorganisms like viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi, rickettsia and nematodes.

I. VIRUSES

Viruses coming under family Baculoviridae cause disease in lepidoptera larvae. Two types of viruses are common.

NPV (Nucleopolyhedro virus) e.g. HaNPV, SlNPV

GV (Granulovirus) e.g. CiGV

Symptoms

Lepidopteran larva become sluggish, pinkish in colour, lose appetite, body becomes fragile and rupture to release polyhedra (virus occlusion bodies). Dead larva hang from top of plant with prolegs attached (Tree top disease or “Wipfelkrankeit”)

II. BACTERIA

Spore forming (Facultative - Crystalliferous)

2 types of bacteria Spore forming (Obligate) Non spore forming

i. Spore forming (Facultative, Crystelliferous)

The produce spores and also toxin (endotoxin). The endotoxin paralyses gut when ingested e.g. Bacillus thuringiensis effective against lepidopteran. Commercial products - Delfin, Dipel, Thuricide

ii. Spore-forming (Obligate)

e.g. Bacillus popilliae attacking beetles, produce ‘milky disease’

Commercial product - ‘Doom’ against ‘white grubs’

iii. Non-spore forming

e.g. Serratia entomophila on grubs

III. FUNGI

i. Green muscardine fungus - Metarhizium anisopliae attack coconut rhinoceros beetle

ii. White muscardine fungus - Beaveria bassiana against lepidopteran larvae

iii. White halo fungus - Verticillium lecanii on coffee green scale.

Other Microbs: Protoza, Nematodes

Limitations of biocontrol technique

- Complete control not achieved - Slow process

- Subsequent pesticide use restricted

- Expensive to culture many NE

- Requires trained man power
PHEROMONES
Semiochemicals are chemical substances that mediate communication
between organisms. Semiochemicals maybe classified into Pheromones (intraspecific
semiochemicals) and Allelochemics (interspecific semiochemicals).
Pheromones are chemicals secreted into the external environment by an
animal which elicit a specific reaction in a receiving individual of the same species.
Pheromones are volatile in nature and they aid in communication among insects.
Pheromones are exocrine in origin (i.e. secreted outside the body). Hence they
were earlier called as ectohormones. In 1959, German chemists Karlson and
Butenandt isolated and identified the first pheromone, a sex attractant from silkworm
moths. They coined the term pheromone. Since this first report, hundreds of
pheromones have been identified in many organisms. The advancement made in
analytical chemistry aided pheromone research.
Based on the responses elicited pheromones can be classified into 2 groups
a) Primer pheromones: They trigger off a chain of physiological changes in
the recipient without any immediate change in the behaviour. They act through
gustatory (taste) sensilla. (e.g.) Caste determination and reproduction in social
insects like ants, bees, wasps, and termites are mediated by primer pheromones.
These pheromones are not of much practical value in IPM.
b) Releaser pheromones: These pheromones produce an immediate change in
the behaviour of the recipient. Releaser pheromones may be further subdivided based
on their biological activity into
1) Sex pheromones
2) Aggregation pheromones
3) Alarm pheromones
4) Trail pheromones
Releaser pheromones act through olfactory (smell) sensilla and directly act on
the central nervous system of the recipient and modify their behaviour. They can be
successfully used in pest management programmes.
1) Sex pheromones are released by one sex only and trigger behaviour
patterns in the other sex that facilitate in mating. They are most commonly released
by females but may be released by males also. In over 150 species of insects, females
have been found to release sex pheromones and about 50 species males produce.
Aphrodisiacs are substances that aid in courtship of the insects after the two sexes are
brought together. In many cases males produce aphrodisiacs.
below.

Insect orders producing sex pheromones
Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, Dictyoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera,
Hemiptera, Neuroptera and mecoptera. In Lepidoptera, sex pheromonal system is
highly evolved.
Pheromone producing glands:
In Lepidoptera they are produced by eversible glands at the tip of the
abdomen of the females. The posture shown during pheromone release is called
‘calling position’. Aphrodisiac glands of male insects are present as scent brushes (or
hair pencils) at the tip of the abdomen (eg. Male butterfly of Danaus sp.).
Andraconia are glandular scales on wings of male moths producing aphrodisiacs.
Pheromone reception:
Female sex pheromones are usually received by olfactory sensillae on male
antennae and males search upwind, following the odour corridor of the females. In
pheromone perceiving insects, the antennae of male moths are larger and greatly
branched than female moths to accommodate numerous olfactory sensilla.
Chemical nature of sex pheromones
In general pheromones have a large number of carbon atoms (10-20) and high
molecular weight (180 – 300 daltons). Narrow specificity and high potency are two
Sl. No. Name of the Insect Pheromone
1. Silkworm, Bombyx mori Bombykol
2. Gypsy moth, Porthesia dispar Gyplure, disparlure
3. Pink bollworm , Pectinophora gossypiella Gossyplure
4. Cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni Looplure
5. Tobacco cutworm, Spodoptera litura Spodolure, litlure
6. Gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera Helilure
7. Honey bee queen, Apis sp. Queen’s substance
attributes which depend on long chain carbon atoms and high molecular weight. But
since pheromones are volatile their molecular weights cannot be very high as they
cannot be carried by wind.
Butenandt and his coworkers in 1959 isolated 12mg of pheromone from the
abdomen of half a million virgin females of silkworm. They named the pheromene
as Bombykol. The chemical name is 10,12 – hexadeca dienol. It is a primary alcohol.
The following are some of the female sex pheromones identified in insects
Examples of male sex pheromones:
Cotton boll weevil, Anthonomas grandis, Coleoptera
Cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni, Lepidoptera
Mediterranean fruitfly, Ceratitis capitata, Diptera.
Multi-component pheromone system : If the pheromone of an insect is composed of
only one chemical compound we call it monocomponent pheromone system.
Pheromones of some insects contain more than one chemical compound. In this case
we call it as multi-component pheromone system. The sex pheromone of two different
species may contain same chemical compounds but the ratio of the compounds may
vary. This brings about species specificity.
Pest Management With Sex Pheromones
Synthetic analogues of sex pheromones of quite large No. of pests are now
available for use in Pest management. Sex pheromones are being used in pest
management in three different ways.
a) In sampling and detection (Monitoring)
b) To attract and kill (Mass trapping)
c) To disrupt mating (Confusion or Decoy method)
a) In sampling and detection (Monitoring) :
Pheromones can be used for monitoring pest incidence/ outbreak in the
following ways.
1. Sterility
2. Insect attractants
3. Insect repellents
4. Antifeedants
5. Insect growth regulators

Plant protection appliances
A. Dusters
Appliances that are used for applying dry dust formulations of pesticides are called as dusters. They make use of an air stream to carry the chemicals in finely divided and dry form to the plants. The dusters consists essentially of a hopper which contains an agitator, an adjustable orifice or metering mechanism and delivery tube. A rotary fan or a below provide the conveying air. They may be operated either manually or by power.

1. Rotary dusters : They are also known as crank dusters and fan type dusters. They vary in design and may be shoulder mounted, back mounted or belly mounted. a rotary duster consists of a blower with gear box and a hopper with
a capacity to hold 4-5 kg dust. The duster is operated by rotating a crank and the motion is transmitted through the gear to the blower. Generally an agitator
is connected to one of the gears. the air current produced by the blower draws the dust from the hopper and discharges out through a delivery tube which may have one or two nozzles (Fig.69). They are used for dusting field crops, vegetables and small trees and bushes in orchards. The efficiency is 1 to 1.5 per day.
B. Sprayers
Principle : The function of a sprayer is to atomize the spray fluid into small droplets and eject it with some force.

The important parts are tank, pump, agitator, pressure gauge, valves, filters, pressure chamber, hose, spray lance, cut of device, boom and nozzle.
1. Tank : To hold the spray fluid during spraying, a sprayer should have a built
in or separate container. In case of knapsack and power sprayers the capacity
of the tank varies from 9 to 13 litres.

2. Pump : The pump is necessary for creating the energy required for atomization of spray fluid. It is most vital part of a sprayer. A sprayer may be equipped with one of the following types of pumps.

a) Air pump : (Pneumatic) : Mostly used in compression sprayers. In this the force created by pump acts, over the spray fluid and the pump does not act directly over the spray fluid.

b) Positive displacement pumps (Plunger, rotary and centrifugal pump) : This pump takes a definite volume of liquid inlet and transfer it without any escape to outlet.

3. Agitator : Most of the sprayers are provided with an agitator for dispersing the pesticide uniformly. It may be hydraulic or mechanical agitation.

4. Pressure gauge : It is connected to the pipe line near the nozzle usually.

5. Valves : They govern the direction of the flow of the spray fluid.

6. Filter : Usually this is provided between tank and the pump unit, pump and spray lance and with in the lance. This is provided mainly to protect the pump from abrasion, to avoid interference with the function of valves and to prevent blocking of nozzles.

7. Pressure chamber : It is present in sprayers working with hydraulic pumps. It prevents fluctuation in the pressure and effects uniformly in spraying.

8. Hose: It is attached to the sprayer on one end and the spray lance on the other. Mainly plastic and nylon materials are used since they are cheap and light.

9. Spray lance : The nozzle of sprayer is usually attached to a brass rod of variable design. Known as the spray lance the length varies from 35 to 90 cm.
It is usually detachable. In certain cases, it has a 120oC bend to from a goose
neck which is useful for spraying under surface of leaf (Fig.72).

10. Cut-off valve : It is used to shut off the liquid (fig.73). This may be operated
by a knob or spring actived (trigger cut-off). Three types are used (a) Wheel cut-off valve with strainer. (b) Trigger cut-off valve with strainer. (c) Trigger cut off valve without strainer.

11. Spray boom : Spray bars carrying more than one nozzle is known as spray booms.

12. Nozzle : It breaks the liquid into droplets and spread them into spray droplets.
It consist of

Types of sprayers : manually operated hydraulic sprayers
In this type, the hydraulic pump directly acts on the spray fluid and discharges
it.
Manually operated compression sprayers : These are also known as pneumatic sprayers because air pressure is employed for forcing the liquid through the nozzle for atomization. The containers of these sprayers should not be filled completely with the spray fluid. a part of the container is kept empty so that adequate air pressure can be developed over the spray fluid in the tank.
Pneumatic knapsack sprayer : These sprayers are similar to compression hand sprayers but are adapted for spraying large quantities of liquid (9-10 litres). It comprises of a tank for holding the spray fluid with compressed air, a vertical air pump with a handle, a filler hole, a spray lance with a nozzle and cut off device. Before starting the sprayer, air is compressed into the empty space in the tank. As the spray continues the pressure drops continuously.
a) Body - piece of brass, one end has internal threads and if the threads are inside they will be called as female nozzles and it present outside as male nozzles. One the other end these threads are always on out side.

b) Cap : It is a nut screwed on the body which holds the strainer, orifice plate, washer and swirl plate in position.

c) Swirl plate : Nozzle has a specially drilled swirl plate to give a definite characteristic spray pattern.

d) Washer (sealer) : They are of various thickness to allow variation in depth
of the swirl chamber and it also prevents the leakage of spray fluid.

e) Stainer : The nozzle is equipped with a strainer. Openings in the strainer are small to prevent the entry to bigger size particle.

HAZARDS CAUSED BY PESTICIDES
The adverse effect caused by pesticides to human beings during manufacture, formulation, application and also consumption of treated products is termed as the hazard.
Pesticide hazard occurs at the time of a. Manufacturing and formulation
b. Application of pesticides
c. Consumption of treated products

Examples of hazards caused by pesticides
1. In Kerala, in 1953, 108 people died due to parathion poisoning
2. ‘Bhopal Gas Tradedy’ in 1984 at Bhopal where the gas called Methyl isocyanate
(MIC) (an intermediate involved in manufacture of carbaryl) leaked killing 5000 people and disabling 50,000 people. Totally 2,00,000 persons were affected. Long term effects like mutagenic and carinogenic effects are felt by survivors.
3. Cases of Blindness, Cancer, Liver and Nervous system diseases in cotton growing
areas of Maharashtra where pesticides are used in high quantity.
4. Psychological symptoms like anxiety, sleep disturbance, depression, severe head ache in workers involved in spraying DDT, malathion regularly.
5. Endosulfan - causing problem due to aerial spraying in cashew in Kerala - recent controversy - yet to be studied in detail.

Safe handling of pesticides
1. Storage of pesticides :
a) Store house should be away from population areas, wells, domestic water storage, tanks.
b) All pesticides should be stored in their original labeled containers in tightly sealed condition.
c) Store away from the reach of children, away from flames and keep them under lock and key.

2. Personal protective equipment
a) Protective clothing that covers arms, legs, nose and head to protect the skin.
b) Gloves and boots to protect hands and feet.
c) Helmets, goggles and facemask to protect hair, eyes and nose. d) Respirator to avoid breathing dusts, mists and vapour.

3. Safety in application of pesticides
Safe handling of pesticides (Fig.68) involves proper selection and careful handling during mixing and application.

a) Pesticide selection : Selection of a pesticide depend on the type of pest, damage, losses caused, cost etc.

b) Safety before application :
i. Read the label and leaflet carefully.
ii. Calculate the required quantity of pesticides.
iii. Wear protective clothing and equipment before handling.
iv. Avoid spillage and prepare spray fluid in well ventilated area.
v. Stand in the direction of the wind on back when mixing pesticides. vi. Do not eat, drink or smoke during mixing.
vii. Dispose off the containers immediately after use.

c) Safety during application
i. Wear protective clothing and equipment.
ii. Spray should be done in windward direction. iii. Apply correct coverage.
iv. Do not blow, suck or apply mouth to any spray nozzle.
v. Check the spray equipment before use for any leakage.

d) Safety after application
i. Empty the spray tank completely after spraying.
ii. Avoid the draining the contaminated solution in ponds, well or on the grass where cattle graze.
iii. Clean the spray equipment immediately after use.
iv. Decontaminate protective clothing and foot wear.
v. Wash the hands thoroughly with soap water, preferably have a bath. vi. Dispose off the containers by putting into a pit.
vii. Sprayed field must be marked and unauthorized entry should be prevented.

First aid : In cane of suspected poisoning; call on the physician immediately. Before calling on a doctor, first aid treatments can be done by any person.

Swallowed poison
i. During vomiting, head should be faced downwards.
ii. Stomach content should be removed within 4 h of poisoning.
iii. To give a soothing effect, give either egg mixed with water, gelatin, butter, cream, milk, mashed potato.
iv. In case of nicotine poisoning, give coffee or strong tea.

Skin contamination
i. Contaminated clothes should be removed.
ii. Thoroughly wash with soap and water.

Inhaled poison
i. Person should be moved to a ventilated place after loosing the tight cloths.
ii. Avoid applying frequent pressure on the chest.

III. Antidotes and other medicine for treatment in pesticide poisoning

S.No. Antidote Medicine Used in poisoning due to

ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT

Agriculture Entomology

DR. LAXMIKANT BASAVRAJ DAMA

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Agriculture Entomology

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